Benefits for Common Health Problems

by Roger Chalmers, MD

The Transcendental Meditation technique has been widely recommended by doctors for its contribution to prevention of disease, management of common disorders, and promotion of positive health (please see www.askthedoctors.com).

Research and clinical experience have identified benefits of Transcendental Meditation in the management of a range of common clinical problems, including reduction of major risk factors for disease, hypertension, angina, heart failure, asthma, stress-related disorders, migraine, anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, ADHD, and substance misuse. Other studies have also explored TM's contribution to promotion of positive health and well-being, and the enhancement of quality of life for patients with major health problems [9-57, 68-100].

A randomized controlled study found that TM improved functional capacity and quality of life in patients who had been recently hospitalized with congestive heart failure. The TM group also showed reduced depression and had fewer re-hospitalizations [27].

Another controlled study found that Transcendental Meditation improved exercise tolerance in patients with angina pectoris (cardiac pain on exercise). All patients in this study had proven coronary artery disease, mostly of moderate or severe degree, and positive exercise-stress tests. Over an eight-month period, subjects who practised TM showed significant improvements in exercise tolerance and maximum workload achieved during a standard exercise test. In addition, there was a significant delay in the onset of electrocardiographic evidence of myocardial ischaemia (shortage of oxygen in the heart muscle) [26].

British research has shown positive effects of Transcendental Meditation on exercise ECG testing and quality of life in patients with cardiac syndrome X (anginal chest pain, positive response to exercise stress testing, and normal coronary angiogram). Despite a generally good prognosis, this distressing and disabling condition often necessitates expensive and invasive investigations, and recurrent hospital admissions; drug treatment is frequently unsatisfactory [28].

In a controlled study of asthma patients, Transcendental Meditation improved airway resistance and reduced severity of symptoms, as evaluated by both patients and physicians [68].

A number of investigations have reported reduced insomnia and improved quality of sleep as a result of Transcendental Meditation [69-71, 75-76, 79, 193, 227, 324]. Practice of TM is also associated with better periodontal health, a key factor in dental health and also an indicator of general health [84].

In keeping with these results, and with decreased medical care needs and costs (see above) [4-8], several studies have reported reduced use of medication among those who practice Transcendental Meditation, including reduced use of mild analgesics, sleeping tablets, tranquilizers, anti-depressants, anti-histamines, asthma inhalers, anti-hypertensives, and drugs for heart disease [71, 75, 78-79, 305].

Physiological changes during TM practice

A Unique State of Restful Alertness

By Roger Chalmers, MD

Extensive physiological research over 40 years has shown that Transcendental Meditation gives rise to a unique physiological state characterized by deep rest [101-122]; increased orderliness and integration of brain functioning [101-104, 107-109, 119-120, 141, 143-155]; increased blood flow to the brain [112, 116, 160]; decreased peripheral vascular resistance [34]; features directly opposite to the physiological and biochemical effects of stress (including high and stable galvanic skin resistance [101-103, 105, 111, 118, 274], decreased plasma cortisol [123-126], reduced arterial blood lactate [101-103, 105, 112-114], and deep muscle relaxation [140, 147]); and other distinctive neuroendocrine changes [121-131, 133-134, 137-139].

Taken together, these studies clearly distinguish the physiology of TM from sleep, drowsiness, or ordinary relaxation. Researchers have concluded that TM gives rise to a fourth major state of consciousness – Transcendental Consciousness – which is both experientially and physiologically distinct from waking, sleeping, and dreaming. Like these three states, Transcendental Consciousness has its own unique correlates, aptly described as a state of ‘restful alertness’ in mind and body [101-109, 119-120, 141, 143-145, 151-155].
EEG (‘brain wave’) studies show that while the level of excitation in the nervous system is greatly reduced during TM, wakefulness increases [101-103, 107, 119, 141, 143-147]. At the same time, the degree of integration between different areas of the brain is increased [141, 145-147, 154], with high EEG coherence between front and back of the brain and between right and left cerebral hemispheres [119-120, 148-149, 152].

High EEG coherence during TM has been found to correlate with higher scores on measures of creativity, intelligence, concept learning, academic performance, mathematical skills, moral reasoning, emotional stability, neuromuscular efficiency, self-development, self-awareness, and experiences of higher states of consciousness; and with lower anxiety and neuroticism [172-176, 145, 199, 216].

Sophisticated neurophysiological and neuroimaging techniques are shedding further light on TM’s integrative effects on the brain [142, 144, 160]. A magneto-encephalographic study identified the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate brain regions as the source of the widespread EEG alpha wave activity observed during TM [144]. Positron emission tomography also highlighted the role of the prefrontal cortex (the highest level of regulation in the brain), showing increased blood flow to this region [160], consistent with the findings of earlier cardiovascular research [112, 116].

Increased brain integration as a result of TM is also evident in EEG patterns outside of meditation, including during challenging cognitive tasks (see below under ‘Comprehensive Benefits in Education’) [149, 156-159, 161-166]. Research on the brain’s response to pain, using functional magnetic resonance imaging, indicates that regular practice of TM reduces distress associated with painful stimuli, without impairing sensory acuity [142].

Improved Mental Health and Well-Being

By Roger Chalmers, MD

A large body of research has demonstrated that Transcendental Meditation produces comprehensive improvements in mental health, enhancing positive aspects of psychological and social functioning, reducing various forms of distress, and developing a more stable, balanced, and resilient personality. Findings include:

• increased self-actualization and enhanced self development [196, 198-199, 202-204, 206, 208-209, 216-224]
• improved self-concept and increased self-esteem [210, 71, 202, 205-206, 208, 214, 225, 277]
• increased autonomy and independence [207, 245]
• decreased anxiety, tension and depression [191, 69-70, 80, 190, 193, 203, 211, 225, 230-231, 245, 277, 324, 327-328, 370]
• reduced aggression and hostility [57, 193, 324, 327-328]
• decreased irritability and impulsiveness [193, 207, 227, 302, 324]
• increased emotional stability and maturity [57, 75, 193, 203, 230-231, 233, 302, 324]
• decreased behavioural rigidity [22, 268]
• increased sociability, friendliness, tolerance, and good humour [57, 201, 205, 207, 211, 230]
• less sensitivity to criticism and greater trust [202]
• increased ability to be objective, fair-minded, and reasonable [302]
• increased social maturity [201]
• increased tolerance and appreciation of others [205, 207, 245, 300]
• enhanced capacity for warm interpersonal relationships [57, 202, 209, 211, 230, 302]
• improved personal, family, and work relationships [69-70, 190, 279, 299, 301-302]
• increased marital harmony and adjustment [299, 302]

A systematic review of 146 independent outcomes found that Transcendental Meditation was more than twice as effective in reducing anxiety as other techniques (including progressive muscular relaxation, methods claimed to induce a ‘relaxation response’, and other forms of meditation). Only TM showed a positive correlation between duration of regular practice and reduction of anxiety. The greater effectiveness of Transcendental Meditation remained highly significant when only the strongest and most rigorous studies were included in the analysis. This result remained robust even when analyses were limited to randomized controlled studies by researchers known to be neutral or sceptical towards TM, and when other potentially confounding factors were controlled [191].

In a second meta-analysis of 42 independent research results, Transcendental Meditation proved three times as effective as other meditation and relaxation procedures in increasing self-actualization, an overall measure of positive mental health and personal development. Further analysis revealed that the technique is exceptionally effective in developing three independent components of this dimension: emotional maturity, a resilient sense of self, and a positive, integrated perspective of self and the world [196].

A third meta-analysis examined 51 studies of the effects of different meditation techniques on measures of psychological health and well-being, comprising more than 9700 research subjects and 400 outcome findings. TM was found to be markedly more effective than other techniques in improving psychological variables; this result was maintained when only studies of highest validity and strongest experimental design were included [197].

The comprehensive nature of Transcendental Meditation's benefits for mental health is illustrated in a randomized study of Vietnam War veterans suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. Over a three-month period, patients practising TM showed clear-cut improvements in all aspects of the syndrome studied, with significant decreases in depression, anxiety, insomnia, and alcohol consumption; improvement in family problems; reduced severity of delayed stress syndrome; decreased emotional numbness; and reduced difficulty in obtaining employment. In contrast, the control group who received standard treatment with psychotherapy showed no significant change on any measure [69].

An exhaustive epidemiological survey conducted by the Swedish National Health Board found evidence that psychiatric hospital admissions were much less common among people practising Transcendental Meditation than in the general population [232].

Benefits for Education

The Transcendental Meditation technique is being increasingly employed in education as a technology to facilitate optimal cognitive, intellectual, social and emotional development. Research findings include:

• Increased intelligence and creativity [236, 63, 201, 233, 238, 243, 245, 247-249]
• Improved memory, learning ability, and cognitive flexibility [22, 175-176, 236, 248, 250-251]
• Improved academic achievement in school, university, and postgraduate students [239-242, 252]
• Accelerated cognitive and self development [198, 200, 216-224, 246, 253]
• Improved attention, perception, and mind-body co-ordination [236, 63, 142, 158-159, 167, 238, 241, 243, 258-270]
• Increased orderliness and integration in brain functioning (see above) [101-104, 106-108, 119-120, 141-179]
• Improvement on both verbal-analytical and visual-spatial tasks (indicating improved functioning of both left and right cerebral hemispheres) [63, 159, 233, 243-245, 247-250, 264]
• Improved athletic performance [272-274]
• Reduced blood pressure in pre-hypertensive adolescents [29, 30, 14]
• Increased field independence (indicating greater ability to maintain broad comprehension while focusing sharply) [236, 241, 243, 260-262]
• Comprehensive benefits for mental health and well-being (see above) [22, 69-70, 75, 80, 190-193, 196-199, 201-214, 225-235]
• Greater moral maturity and higher moral reasoning [213, 223, 248, 173]
• Increased orientation towards positive values [212]
• Increased social maturity in college students [201]
• Reduced alcohol consumption, drug abuse, and smoking (see above) [51-54, 230, 303-320]
• Reduced behaviour problems in school – decreased absenteeism, rule infractions, and suspension days [234]
• Settled, positive school atmosphere conducive to successful learning [252]
• Increased harmony between students and teachers [252]
• Benefits in special and remedial education:
o Increased independence and self-supportiveness, improved self-regard, and decreased dropout rate from school in economically-deprived adolescents with learning problems [225]
o Increased intelligence and improved self-concept among children from low income families [246]
o Decreased anxiety, examination anxiety, and school dislike in children with learning problems [255]
o Improvements in children with ADHD (please see www.adhd-tm.org)
o Improvement in autism: decreased echolalic behavior [256]
o Benefits for learning disabled subjects: improvements in social behaviour, cognitive functioning, intelligence, physical health; and normalization of neuroendocrine measures [229, 100]
o Decreased stuttering [257]
o Improved social behaviour, increased self-regard, and decreased anxiety among juvenile offenders [337, 332]

Three randomized controlled studies conducted in Taiwan found that TM produced greater improvements in speed of cognitive processing, cognitive flexibility, creativity, general intelligence, practical intelligence, and field independence than either a traditional Chinese meditation technique or napping [236]. The authors note that, as in earlier research on TM and intelligence, the technique produced unexpected improvements in basic cognitive abilities that do not usually develop beyond early adolescence [236, 233, 238].

In a British study, master’s degree engineering students who learned Transcendental Meditation showed improved performance on standard examinations after six months, compared with randomly assigned controls [239].

Canadian secondary school students who practised Transcendental Meditation over a 14-week period showed improvements in intellectual performance (problem-solving ability), creativity, tolerance, self-esteem, autonomy and independence, innovation, energy levels, and ability to deal with abstract and complex situations, as well as decreased anxiety, in contrast to control students [245].

In Cambodian students taking a one-year preparatory course before university, TM led to increased intelligence and self-esteem, improved physical health, and decreased depression and anxiety, compared to control students [235, 237]

In a four-month randomized trial, adolescent African American children who learned Transcendental Meditation showed reductions in absenteeism, school rule infractions, and suspension days compared to a control group who participated in health education [234].
In a ten-year longitudinal study, university students practising the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme increased significantly on a measure of self development (Loevinger’s ego-development scale), in contrast to non-meditating control students at three other universities [198].

Another study of university students practising TM found that they rated important people in their lives (parents and spouse) significantly more positively than did control students [212].

Consciousness-Based Education in Practice
TM has been practically applied in schools and universities in highly diverse social and economic environments in many parts of the world, including UK, USA, India, Thailand, Cambodia, Taiwan, Australia, South Africa, Uganda, Canada, Peru, Venezuela, Bolivia, Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Trinidad and Tobago, Paraguay, and Guatemala. These projects have produced exceptional standards of academic achievement, student well-being, and school harmony [www.consciousnessbasededucation.org.uk].

The longest established educational institutions employing Maharishi’s Consciousness-Based Education – Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa and Maharishi Schools in Fairfield and in Skelmersdale, Lancashire – have consistently delivered outstanding educational outcomes, and their students have repeatedly won regional, national, and international awards in many fields, including science, mathematics, creative thinking, literature, and sport. These results are particularly notable since both schools have an open admissions policy and do not select pupils by ability or background.

At Maharishi School in Lancashire in 2007, 100% of the pupils who took their GCSE examinations gained passes at grade C or above, compared with the national average of 63%. Approximately 66% of the passes were at the highest grades of A or A*; this is over three times the national figure of 19.5%. These results maintain the high standards of previous years: in 2006, all pupils gained five or more passes at grades A to C, with 58% at A or A* [www.maharishischool.com].

Maharishi School in Fairfield, Iowa has ten times the national average of graduates who are National Merit Scholar Finalists and has seen 95% of graduates accepted at four-year colleges, with senior students consistently scoring in the nation’s top 1% on standardized tests of educational development. Maharishi School students have won over 100 international, national, and state competitions for academic projects, sports, arts, and extracurricular activities. For example, in Destination ImagiNation, an international problem-solving competition, Maharishi School students have not only won the World Championship three times, but have had more top ten finishes than any other school in the world [252, www.maharishischooliowa.org, and www.mum.edu].

The TM program can also make a great contribution to calming the stress and violence that has become all too frequent in schools, especially in economically-deprived areas. Dr George Rutherford, a Washington D.C. educator and school principal for over four decades, served for 20 years as Principal of the Fletcher-Johnson Educational Centre in one of the city’s most violent areas. There he introduced Transcendental Meditation to hundreds of students and teachers as part of a unique programme of ‘quiet time’. ‘We had amazing results,’ Dr Rutherford has said. ‘I used to have to be in the streets all the time to stop the fighting, but after we started the TM programme, I didn’t have to go out there. You walk into the school and you feel it’s tension-free: a stress-free school right in the heart of the inner city, where we had plenty of violence.’ Other American schools situated in troubled areas are experiencing similarly positive results, including reduced student suspensions, improved teacher attendance, improved school environment, and fewer fights. Two recent studies have shown that Transcendental Meditation positively influences emotional development in early adolescent African-American children in a school setting where its practice is supported by the administration [www.tmeducation.org].

By incorporating TM into the daily curriculum, Consciousness-Based Education progressively develops integration in brain functioning—the essential foundation for more effective learning, enhanced personal growth, and greater success in any field of life (see ‘Physiological Changes during TM’ above). A recent randomized controlled trial found that college students who practised TM over a three-month period showed increased scores on an electroencephalographic (EEG) index of brain integration compared to non-meditating control students [163], corroborating the findings of earlier studies [164-165]. The TM group also showed reduced sleepiness and had no increase in physiological stress levels (measured by skin resistance responses) despite impending final examinations, in contrast to the expected increase seen in controls [163].

Reduced Smoking, Alcohol Consumption, and Drug Abuse

Transcendental Meditation has consistently been found to reduce the use of tobacco, alcohol, and non-prescribed drugs in a wide variety of settings and populations [51-54, 190, 230, 276, 303-320]. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 198 studies (including 19 on TM) found that Transcendental Meditation produced marked, sustained, and highly significant reductions in smoking, alcohol consumption, and illicit drug use, with larger effects than other treatments including standard therapies, other forms of meditation, relaxation training, educational programmes, anxiety management, counselling to counteract peer pressure, biofeedback, hypnosis, acupuncture and sensory deprivation [51].

Over an 18-24 month period, abstinence ranged from 51% to 89% for people practising Transcendental Meditation, compared to 21% for good conventional substance abuse programmes. In contrast to high early relapse rates with standard programmes, reductions in smoking and alcohol consumption with TM increased gradually over time, while initial marked reductions in illicit drug use were sustained [51]. Overall, research in this area indicates that the longer individuals practise Transcendental Meditation, the more likely it is that they will stop or markedly reduce smoking, alcohol consumption, or drug abuse [51, 54].

Improved Occupational Health and Job Performance

by Roger Chalmers, MD

Studies conducted in business and industry have shown that TM improves occupational health and performance [52, 70, 190, 253, 275-298]. Findings include:
• Improved job performance [276, 279]
• Increased job satisfaction [190, 279]
• Improved relationships at work [190, 279]
• Increased productivity [279]
• Increased employee effectiveness [190]
• Increased contribution of managers to the organization [276]
• Improved leadership [278]
• Enhanced management development [253, 281-298, 166]
• Improved physical and mental health and well-being [52, 70, 190, 275-277]
• Improved health-related behaviour in employees and managers [52, 190, 276]
• Reduced stress in employees and managers [190, 275-276]
• Reduced job tension, anxiety, and depression [70, 190, 277]
• Increased energy and decreased fatigue [190, 276]
• Reduced difficulty in obtaining employment for people with post-traumatic stress disorder [69]

In a five-month study conducted by researchers from Japan's National Institute of Industrial Health (a branch of the Japanese Ministry of Labour), industrial employees practising Transcendental Meditation showed increased emotional stability and reductions in anxiety, tendency to neurosis, impulsiveness, physical complaints, insomnia and smoking compared to controls. Depression also decreased in the TM group, despite lower initial levels [52, 70]. Overall, employees practising Transcendental Meditation improved significantly on 10 out of 14 dimensions, whereas controls improved on only one [70].

Another study examined stress, health, and employee development in two settings in the automotive industry: a large manufacturing plant of a Fortune 100 corporation and a small sales distribution company. Employees who learned Transcendental Meditation showed significantly greater improvement than matched control subjects on a wide variety of measures, including improved general health and reductions in physiological arousal, anxiety, job tension, insomnia, fatigue, and consumption of cigarettes and hard liquor [190]. Practice of Transcendental Meditation also led to increased job satisfaction, improved employee effectiveness, and better work and personal relationships, confirming the findings of an earlier study [190, 279].

Further analysis identified three factors underlying this wide range of improvements through TM: ‘occupational coherence’, ‘physiological settledness’, and ‘job and life satisfaction’. The effect size of TM in reducing physiological arousal, anxiety, and alcohol/cigarette use, and in enhancing personal development, was substantially larger than for other forms of meditation and relaxation reported in four previous statistical meta-analyses [190].

A three-month prospective study at a medical equipment company compared managers who learned Transcendental Meditation to matched controls who were similar in age, education level, race, marital status, hours worked per week, job type and level of responsibility in the organization. Managers who practised TM made an increased ‘organizational contribution’ compared to controls, as measured by a combined index of productivity, leadership practices, work relationships, vitality, mental health, job satisfaction, and anger. TM also led to reduced alcohol consumption; healthier habits of exercise, diet, and sleep; decreased serum cholesterol; increased energy and less fatigue; improved mental health; reduced stress-related physical symptoms; and reduction in perceived stress (the degree to which situations were perceived as overloading, uncontrollable or unpredictable) [276].

In a randomized study of employees at a high-security government agency, subjects who learned Transcendental Meditation showed reductions in anxiety and depression after 12 weeks, in comparison to controls who participated in an educational corporate stress-management programme. When retested after three years, the TM group showed not only sustained reductions in anxiety and depression, but also improved self-concept compared to controls [277]. Consistent with these findings, a controlled prospective study of employees at a South African firm found that TM was effective in reducing psychological stress and decreasing both systolic and diastolic blood pressure over a five-month period [275]. In another study, employees at a food sales company who learned TM showed greater improvement on a composite measure of leadership behaviour over an eight-month period than non-meditating controls [278].

Development of a company's human resources through Transcendental Meditation has been shown to produce marked improvements in corporate health and performance. For example, in a medium-sized chemical manufacturing company, productivity and profitability increased steadily as the number of employees practising Transcendental Meditation rose over six years to 80% of the total workforce. During this period, productivity increased by 52%, annual sales per employee grew by 88%, while days lost through illness or injury decreased by 50%, and absenteeism declined by 89% [285].

Effective Rehabilitation of Offenders
Research spanning more than 35 years demonstrates that Transcendental Meditation is effective in correcting and preventing criminal behaviour. These studies have used some of the most sophisticated and widely validated measures of mental health and developmental maturity available in the social sciences [193, 321-341].

A study conducted at Harvard University on maximum security inmates in Massachusetts showed that the criminal mindset can be altered by Transcendental Meditation. Prisoners who learned the technique significantly improved on measures of psychopathology, including decreased aggression, anxiety, and schizophrenic symptoms. Furthermore, Transcendental Meditation increased their self development by more than one level on Loevinger’s ego (self) development scale—from the dependent, exploitative orientation that is commonly found in criminals to the more responsible, self-monitoring, self-respecting, and communicative orientation of law-abiding citizens. Such holistic effects on development in adults are remarkable, especially among people previously thought to be most resistant to change [327-328].

In another maximum security prison study, inmates who learned Transcendental Meditation showed reductions in anxiety, resentment, negativism, suspicion, verbal hostility, neuroticism, and tendency to assault, as well as decreased insomnia and improved quality of sleep compared to controls [193, 324].

Transcendental Meditation can also facilitate rehabilitation of juvenile offenders: young people referred to juvenile court for a legal offence showed improved social behaviour and increased self-regard after learning TM. Anxiety levels were also reduced, a result corroborated by a later study [337, 332].

Both previous and subsequent research strongly supports these findings [321-313, 325-326, 329-331, 333-336, 338-341]. A narrative and quantitative review of the application of TM in eight correctional settings involving almost 1500 inmates found that the technique leads to positive changes in health, psychological development, and behaviour [322]. Another review examining changes in brain chemistry of criminals found that stress-related neuroendocrine abnormalities known to be associated with aggression and crime were alleviated by Transcendental Meditation [341].

The ultimate test for any rehabilitation programme is whether it reduces the frequency with which former offenders commit new crimes and return to prison (recidivism). Two studies, one with a 15-year follow-up period after release, found that TM markedly decreased recidivism rates, with up to 47% reduction compared to controls participating in other treatment programmes [321, 323, 329]. In keeping with these results, a large scale study of 11,000 prisoners and 900 prison officers in Senegal found that Transcendental Meditation reduced recidivism rates to only 8%, as well as markedly decreasing prison violence and health problems [326].

In a pioneering, community-based rehabilitation programme, six Missouri judges have sentenced over 100 probationers, whose offences range from drunken driving to manslaughter, to learn TM. The programme has had remarkable success, with extremely low rates of re-offending based on promotion of more balanced, successful, and law-abiding lives for participants [325].

Normalization of weight

More Effective Weight Reduction 

Obesity is a major and rapidly growing problem in modern society, with multiple health risks including increased cardiovascular disease, diabetes, musculoskeletal problems, and cancer. Current approaches to management have consistently proved inadequate for many people. A randomized controlled trial conducted in Germany examined weight changes and psychological health in two groups of markedly overweight subjects who were given the same calorie-controlled diet. Over a four-month period, subjects assigned to learn Transcendental Meditation lost more than twice as much weight as non-meditating controls (7.5 kg versus 3.1 kg). Evaluation of mental health showed reduction of anxiety and depression, increased emotional stability, and other positive effects in the TM group [57].

Youthfulness, Aging and Longevity

Effects of the Transcendental Meditation Program
on Aging

PHYSIOLOGY

Increase with ageing; Decrease with TM
Blood pressure – systolic [9-14, 22-23, 29-31, 40]
Blood pressure – diastolic [9-14, 23, 29-31]
Atherosclerosis [24]
Heart failure [27]
Visual evoked potentials – P300 latency [62]
Reflex latency (monosynaptic reflex) [169]
Reflex recovery time (paired H-reflex) [170]
Muscular contraction time (fast and mixed muscles) [169]
Susceptibility to stress [80, 105, 180-181, 190, 265]
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate [64]
Insomnia (time to fall asleep) [76, 193, 324]
Sleep disturbance (awakenings per night) [76, 193, 324]
Daytime sleep [76]

Decrease with ageing; Increase with TM
Cardiovascular efficiency [26-27, 31, 34, 273-274]
Vital capacity [273-274]
Cerebral blood flow [112, 116, 160]
EEG alpha power [101-104, 107-108, 120, 141, 143-147, 154]
Temperature homeostasis [67]
Neuromuscular co-ordination [273-274]
Periodontal health [84]
Physical health and well-being in later life [22, 9-11, 27]
Longevity [20-22, 60]

BIOCHEMISTRY

Increase with ageing; Decrease with TM
Serum cholesterol [47-48, 276]
Insulin resistance [23]

Decrease with ageing; Increase with TM
DHEA-S (dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate) [61]
Efficiency of endocrine control (pituitary-thyroid axis) [93]
Glucose tolerance [55-56]

PERCEPTION AND MIND-BODY CO-ORDINATION
Decrease with ageing; Increase with TM
Visual perception [22, 158, 244, 267]
Dichotic listening [265]
Field independence [236, 241, 243, 260-262]
Perceptual flexibility [22, 158, 244, 268]
Perceptual-motor performance [63, 259, 268-270]
Complex sensory-motor performance [269-270]

Increase with ageing; Decrease with TM
Auditory threshold [65-66, 1-2]

Behavioural rigidity [22, 268]
Reaction time – simple [63, 258, 273-274]
Reaction time – complex [259, 158]

PSYCHOLOGY
Decrease with ageing; Increase with TM
Fluid intelligence [233, 236, 238, 243, 63]
Creativity [236, 245, 247, 249]
Learning ability [22, 248, 250]
Memory – verbal [250]
Memory – visual [63]
Organization of memory [251]
Cognitive flexibility [22, 236, 244, 158]
Self-evaluation of health and well-being [22, 70, 80]
Mental health and well-being in later life [22, 27]

Increase with ageing; Decrease with TM
Depression [27, 69-70, 202-203, 235, 277]

REQUIREMENTS FOR HEALTH CARE
Increase with ageing; Decrease with TM
Patient days in hospital (medical and surgical) [4-5]
Outpatient visits (medical and surgical) [4-5]
Health care costs [6-8]
Rise in health care needs with advancing age [4]
Rise in health care costs with advancing age [8]

In keeping with these observations, a study employing a standardized ageing index found that the biological age of middle-aged individuals practising Transcendental Meditation was significantly younger than both their chronological age and the biological age of non-meditating controls. The longer subjects had been practising TM, the greater the degree to which biological age was younger than chronological age [59]. A British study subsequently found similar results in a younger population [65-66].

A meticulously controlled, randomized study from Harvard University found that elderly individuals who learned Transcendental Meditation showed greater improvements in cognitive and behavioural flexibility, learning ability, self-assessment of well-being and ageing, systolic blood pressure, and staff assessment of mental health than subjects taught either a relaxation procedure or ‘mindfulness’ training, or who acted as a no-treatment control group. Those who learned the relaxation procedure (which attempted to imitate TM) showed no improvement on any measure. A clear majority of TM subjects rated their technique as personally useful and easy to practise, in contrast to lower ratings for the other techniques [22].

Strikingly, after three years, all those who had learned Transcendental Meditation were still living in contrast to lower survival rates for the other three groups and for the remaining inhabitants of the institutions where the study was conducted [22]. Moreover, significantly greater longevity in the TM group was subsequently maintained over a 15-year follow-up period. Average survival times were 2.2 years (18%) longer for cardiovascular mortality and 1.73 years (19%) longer for all-cause mortality in the TM group, compared to the other three groups combined [60].

These findings are supported by an eight-year randomized controlled study showing reduced cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in elderly African Americans with mild high blood pressure [21]. A third analysis combined data from these two studies, totalling 202 subjects. Mortality rates were significantly reduced among TM subjects compared to controls: 23% lower for all-cause mortality, and 30% lower for cardiovascular mortality [20].

Increased health care needs and costs are among the most important correlates of ageing. As discussed above, a 14-year study of medical expenses among people over 65 years in Quebec showed that individuals practising TM had markedly reduced annual change in payments to doctors compared to matched controls, with a cumulative difference of 64.2% after five years [8]. An earlier American study of health insurance data also found relatively little increase in health care needs with advancing age among individuals practising Transcendental Meditation, in contrast to a marked increase seen in a normative control group [4].

Middle-aged and older individuals practising TM have been found to maintain higher levels of the hormone dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) than controls. DHEAS usually declines steadily throughout adult life; low levels have been linked to a variety of diseases and to increased mortality. On average, DHEAS levels in individuals practising TM were comparable to levels of non-meditators who were 5-10 years younger—a difference that could not be explained by variations in diet, weight, or exercise [61].

In another study, individuals practising Transcendental Meditation were found to have lower average erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and a higher frequency of zero ESR compared to controls. Increased ESR is correlated with ageing and is a well-established clinical marker of inflammation [64].

Aging research has focused extensively on the role of free radicals – small, highly reactive molecules or molecular fragments which can powerfully oxidize and damage vital bio-molecules, injuring tissues and disrupting physiological repair mechanisms. Free radicals are thought to be involved in key aspects of ageing and are also implicated in many major diseases, including coronary heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes and inflammatory disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis [90]. A recent study examined free radical activity, as measured by ultraweak photon emissions at 12 anatomical locations, in 60 middle-aged male subjects practising either TM or other forms of meditation, or acting as non-meditating controls. Subjects who practised TM showed significantly lower free radical activity than both controls (at all 12 anatomical sites) and practitioners of other types of meditation (at 11 out of 12 sites). Compared to non-meditating controls, free radical activity was 27% lower among TM subjects, compared to 17% lower in practitioners of other techniques [50]. This investigation supports an earlier study showing lower blood levels of lipid peroxides (another index of free radical activity) in elderly people who practised Transcendental Meditation compared to non-meditating peers [49].

Improved Quality of Life for Society as a Whole

THE MAHARISHI EFFECT

Every individual continuously contributes to, and is influenced by, the quality of life in society as a whole. Based on this principle, Maharishi predicted in 1960 that if even a small fraction of the population were to practise Transcendental Meditation, positive changes would be observed not only in their own lives but also throughout the community.

This prediction was first investigated in 1974 in a number of American cities where 1% of the population had learned Transcendental Meditation. When the 1% threshold was reached, a substantial reduction in crime rate was observed, in contrast to previous crime trends in these cities and to the continuing rise of crime in matched control cities with far fewer meditators [342].

This result has subsequently been confirmed and extended by larger and increasingly more rigorous investigations, which have demonstrated that the percentage of the population practising Transcendental Meditation is a reliable predictor of decreases in crime, suicides, and accidents even after controlling for demographic factors that are known to influence these parameters. For example, scientists found that the observed improvements in quality of life could not be explained by changes in population size and density, residential stability, college population, ethnic distribution, unemployment rate, average income, percentage of the population living below the poverty level, age distribution, average level of education, police coverage, or previous crime trends. Further research confirmed a direct causal relationship between numbers practising Transcendental Meditation and reduction of crime rate in two separate random samples, one of 160 cities and the other of 80 metropolitan areas in the United States [343, 348].

This phenomenon, representing a transition to a more orderly and harmonious state in society, was named the Maharishi Effect in recognition of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who had both predicted it and made possible its practical implementation. More than 40 separate studies have now been conducted on this effect [342-369].

Scientific interest grew sharply when it was observed that the effect of coherence in society was greatly intensified when Transcendental Meditation and the advanced TM-Sidhi programme, including Yogic Flying, are practised together in a group. As a result, the number needed to generate the Maharishi Effect was found to be greatly reduced, to as little as the square root of one percent of the population. This figure is a very small proportion of any large social system: approximately 800 for the United Kingdom, 1750 for the United States, and only 8000 for the world as a whole. These relatively small numbers have made it practically possible to test this formula repeatedly in cities, provinces, states, whole nations, and even the entire world [343-369].

The rise in coherence and harmony in society created by groups utilizing this technology has been repeatedly verified through increasingly well-controlled studies, including prospective projects, employing the most rigorous experimental designs and statistical methods available in the social sciences. Many have appeared in leading journals, including Journal of Conflict Resolution; Social Indicators Research; Psychology, Crime and Law; The Journal of Mind and Behavior; Psychological Reports; Journal of Offender Rehabilitation; and Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. The results of these investigations, summarized in Table 4, reach exceptionally high levels of statistical significance: taken together, they establish the Maharishi Effect on a level of proof unprecedented in sociological research.

Research Findings on Groups Practicing the
Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program

• Decreased crime (research on: Merseyside, UK; Netherlands; Washington DC and Puerto Rico, USA; Metro Manila, Philippines; Union Territory of Delhi, India; Israel; and Jerusalem, Israel) [343-348, 351, 361-362]
• Decreased violent crime (Washington DC) [345]
• Decreased violent fatalities (homicide, suicide, and motor vehicle accidents) (USA) [343]
• Decreased motor vehicle and/or aircraft accidents and fatalities (Netherlands; USA; Jerusalem, Israel; Worldwide) [351-352, 361-362, 366]
• Decreased fires (Jerusalem, Israel) [361-362]
• Reduction of notifiable infectious diseases (USA; Australia) [366]
• Increased economic prosperity and confidence—
• Decrease in an index of unemployment and inflation (USA; Canada) [354-357]
• Increases in stock market indices (USA; UK; Israel; Worldwide) [352, 358, 361-362, 366]
• Increased patent applications (indicating increased creativity) (USA; UK; South Africa; Australia) [366]
• Improvements in overall quality of state and national life (as measured by composite indices including data on crime, suicides, accidents, foetal deaths, infant mortality, infectious diseases, pollution, alcohol and cigarette consumption, gross national product, days lost through strikes, patent applications, higher educational attainment, and divorce rates (USA; Canada; Philippines; Rhode Island, USA; and Iowa, USA) [346, 349-350, 352-353, 359]
• More positive national mood (Israel) [361-362]
• Reduced conflict and increased progress towards peace in major world trouble-spots—
• Decreased war deaths, war injuries, and intensity of conflict (Lebanon) [361-362, 367]
• Decreased international conflict (Worldwide) [363, 366, 368]
• Increased progress towards peaceful resolution of conflict (Lebanon) [367]
• Reduced casualties and injuries from international terrorism (Worldwide) [363]
• More positive interactions between the superpowers and increased friendliness in statements of US Head of State (USA; Soviet Union) [364-365]
• Increased harmony in international affairs (Worldwide) [366]

A fascinating feature of these investigations is that diverse and apparently unrelated social parameters are found to improve simultaneously, consistent with the conclusion that this technology enlivens a source of orderliness and integration that is common to all aspects of life [352, 361-362, 366].

With the discovery of the Maharishi Effect, world peace and prosperity become, for the first time, achievable goals. Permanent maintenance of several groups of 8000 individuals collectively practising Transcendental Meditation and Yogic Flying – more than enough to sustain a continuous powerful influence of coherence and positivity for the entire world – would cost no more than a very small number of advanced military aircraft [366-369].

List of Research Journals

Scientific and medical journals that have published
original research or reviews on Transcendental Meditation

Medicine
American Journal of Cardiology
Archives of Internal Medicine
Stroke
Hypertension
American Journal of Hypertension
European Journal of Endocrinology
Current Hypertension Reviews
Respiration
American Journal of Managed Care
Japanese Journal of Industrial Health
Health and Quality of Life Outcomes
Japanese Journal of Public Health
Psychosomatic Medicine
Health Promotion
Circulation
Lancet
Medical Hypotheses
Homeostasis
Journal of Behavioral Medicine
Ethnicity and Disease
Journal of the National Medical Association
Socialstyrelsen (Swedish National Health Board
publication)
Acta Medica Okayama
Harefuah, Journal of the Israel Medical Association
New Zealand Medical Journal
Journal of the Canadian Medical Association
New Zealand Family Physician
Australian Family Physician
International Journal of Psychosomatics
Journal of Psychosomatic Research
Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and
Physiology
Est-Medicine
Journal of Human Stress
British Journal of Nursing
Ugeskrift for Lœger
Journal of the American Association of Nephrology
Nurses and Technicians
Journal of the American Society of Psychosomatic
Dentistry and Medicine
Alternative Therapies in Clinical Practice
Complementary Medicine International
Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine
Physiology and Neuroscience
Science
American Journal of Physiology
Scientific American
International Journal of Neuroscience
NeuroReport
Experimental Neurology
Journal of Applied Physiology
Human Physiology
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
Electroencephalography and Clinical
Neurophysiology
Biological Psychology
Psychoneuroendocrinology
International Journal of Psychophysiology
L’Encephale
Consciousness and Cognition
Sleep
Dreaming
Journal of Neural Transmission
Psychophysiology
Physiology and Behavior
Hormones and Behavior
Revue d'electroencephalographie et de
neurophysiologie clinique
Motivation, Motor and Sensory Processes of the
Brain, Progress in Brain Research
Signal Processing
Experientia
Biofeedback and Self-Regulation
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
Revista Internacional De Ciencias Del Deporte
(International Journal of Sports Science)
Fiziologiia Cheloveka
Biulleten Eksperimental Biologii Meditsiny
Zeitschrift für Elektroenzephalographie und
Elektromyographie EEG-EMG
Psychopathometrie
Transactions of the American Society for
Neurochemistry
Proceedings of the Endocrine Society of Australia

Psychology, Psychiatry, and Rehabilitation
Journal of Clinical Psychology
Journal of Psychology
British Journal of Psychology
American Psychologist
American Journal of Psychiatry
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Journal of Social Behavior and Personality
Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly
Hospital and Community Psychiatry
Perceptual and Motor Skills
Memory and Cognition
Psychological Reports
Journal of Counseling Psychology
Journal of Personality and Individual Differences
Journal of Humanistic Psychology
Journal of Personality Assessment
Journal of Indian Psychology
Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health Gedrag: Tijdschrift voor Psychologie
Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie
Psychotherapie-Psychosomatik Medizinische
Psychologie
Western Psychologist
Lakartidningen
Journal of Criminal Justice
Criminal Justice and Behavior
International Journal of Comparative and Applied
Criminal Justice
International Journal of the Addictions
Bulletin of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive
Behaviors

Education and Management
British Journal of Educational Psychology
Intelligence
Education
Journal of Business & Psychology
Academy of Management Journal
Journal of Transnational Management Development
Journal of Creative Behavior
Journal of Moral Education
Journal of Adult Development
Journal of Instructional Psychology
College Student Journal
Career Development International
Organizational Change Management
Anxiety, Stress and Coping
Journal of Managerial Psychology
Management Decision
The Learning Organization: an International Journal
Journal of Managerial Psychology
Leadership and Organization Development Journal
Chinmaya Management Review
The TQM Magazine

Sociology
Journal of Conflict Resolution
Social Indicators Research
Psychology Crime and Law
Journal of Crime and Justice
Journal of Mind and Behavior
Social Science Perspectives Journal
Proceedings of the American Statistical Association
Proceedings of the Midwest Management Society

References to Scientific Research

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